Puerperal Sepsis: History, Causes and Interventions

Puerperal Sepsis: History, Causes and Interventions What is Puerperal Sepsis? Why is Puerperal Sepsis less prevalent now than 1900’s? Lynda Williams Abstract The purpose of the report is to understand what puerperal sepsis is and to raise awareness of the condition to expectant mothers, women that have miscarried, families and physicians. To understand the risks that is linked with the condition and to be able to spot signs and symptoms, as well as how to prevent further cases through aseptic techniques and principles and hand hygiene. The information that will be included is background information on the condition: what is it, how it came about, what treatment was used and what caused it. The report will include information on what are the symptoms, what causes it, who is at risk, how it can be diagnosed, how to treat it, what are the complications and how to prevent further cases from occurring. The report will focus on national statistics for the UK. This will include statistics to show how the prevalence of puerperal sepsis within the UK has decreased from 1900’s to today through medical advances and research. The research used will be secondary: books, journals, and internet. Primary research will not be used as the report is based on facts and information that is already available through reports and medical advice. Contents Background/Historypage 4 Causespage 5 Symptomspage 5 Who is at Risk?Page 6 Diagnosispage 6 Treatmentpage 6 Complications page 7 Preventionpage 7 Analysis of Statisticspage 8 Conclusionpage 8 Recommendationpage 8 Referencespage 9 Bibliographypage 10-11 Glossarypage 12 Appendixespage 13 Background/History Puerperal sepsis is a term giving to an infection that affect expectant mothers and those who have recently delivered. Infections within pregnancy can be severe as the genital tract has an increased surface area. (Knight, M. 2015). (Awori, N. et al. 1999). The infection can affect the cavity and walls of the uterus, which can lead to pelvic abscesses. The pus can spread high into the pelvis or into the lower abdomen. Infection tends to spreads after long labour or severe bleeding due to haemorrhaging which can cause peritonitis, septicaemia or death. (Awori, N. et al. 1999). Puerperal Sepsis formerly known as childbed fever or puerperal fever was a mystery; it killed those at the cruellest of moments. It was understood that wherever physicians went the disease became more prevalent, especially within hospitals. During the 1700’s it was believed women were delivered from the peril of childbirth, not deliver a child into the world. Physicians believed sepsis occurred when there was a failure to urinate, it then became known as ‘milk metastasis’ as the internal organs of those that had died looked like they were covered in milk, it was later identified as pus. (Burch, D. 2009). It was believed that puerperal fever was caused by various environmental factors: sewage, poor ventilation, cold, mists, vague ‘putrid tendencies,’ not bacterium and infection control. During the late 1700’s, Alexander Gordon leading obstetrician studied childbed fever and came to the conclusion that the disease was spread by physicians, it was related to skin infections and the only treatment was bloodletting. Bloodletting was widely accepted as a cure, however physicians understood more needed to be done to stop the spread of sepsis. (Burch, D. 2009). Causes Puerperal sepsis is caused by bacterium being introduced into the genital tract and women that are in labour or giving birth are more susceptible due to large genital tract surface area. The genital and urinary tracts have warm, moist environments that bacteria need to multiple. The bacterium can enter the body through pelvic exams, trauma during labour or prolonged labour. During pelvic exams the bacterium is introduced into the genital tract by unclean hands during examinations or through the use of non-sterile instruments. (Nall, R. 2014). Bacteria that are known to cause a puerperal sepsis include: Chlamydia Clostridium tetani Clostridium welchii Escherichia coli (E.coli) Gonococci Staphylococci Streptococci (Nall, R. 2014). Other causes of puerperal sepsis are mastitis, pyelonephritis, ruptured membranes, respiratory complication, first birth, poor socioeconomic status, caesarean delivery and superficial or deep-vein thrombosis. (Baring, N. 2013). Symptoms Symptoms for puerperal sepsis normally appear between 24 hours to 10 days after infection begins. If one or more symptoms are present, action should be taken and treat as appropriate. Women should be monitored closely for any of the following symptoms: Fever – higher that 38à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °C or 100.4à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °F Shivering and chills Uterus does not return to normal size Pain and discomfort in lower abdomen Tenderness and pain in the uterus Malaise Discharge from the vagina – foul-smelling and containing pus Pale and discoloured skin Short of breath Fatigued, difficult to rouse Altered mental state Edema Flu like symptoms (Nall, R. 2014) (Sepsis Alliance 2015). Who is at Risk? Any woman that is pregnant, has miscarried, aborted or delivered are at risk of sepsis but certain factors increase that risk. Women that are more susceptible are those that have liver disease, lupus a condition of the immune system, diabetes, congestive heart failure, are obese, first pregnancy, women that are under 25 or women that are over 40. Women over 40 are at risk of sepsis from infections due to placenta praevia and placenta abruption. Women that are underwent invasive procedures to become pregnant or invasive tests during pregnancy are more prone to infections that can lead to sepsis. (Sepsis Alliance 2015) Diagnosis Abnormal changes in the patient temperature, heart and breathing rate can indicate infection. The vagina and uterus will be checked for swelling and tenderness by abdominal and internal exams. Broad-spectrum antibiotics will be prescribed if sepsis is suspected to prevent the infection from spreading, long term damage to the body and death. Further tests will be carried out to determine the type of infection, where it is located and if bodily functions have been affected. These tests can include: Blood and urine test Wound swabs Blood pressure checks Ultrasound scan, X-rays or computerised tomography (CT) scan Organ function tests – liver, kidney, heart Lumbar puncture Stool samples (NHS Choices. 2014) (Nall, R. 2014) Treatment If sepsis is suspected broad-spectrum antibiotics will be given orally or intravenously to prevent infection spreading. When results from further testing have been received then a focused antibiotic is used to kill the bacterium. Anti-fever medication and cold compresses may be used to keep the fever under control. Oxygen may be given as levels in the blood can become low due to the body demand for oxygen. Intravenous fluids may be given to prevent dehydration and kidney failure, normally given within the first 48 hours after hospital admission. Sepsis can cause the blood pressure to drop; medication called vasopressors will be given to increase blood pressure allowing the patient condition to improve. Infection sites need to be keep clean and dry; pus to be drained away allowing infected tissue to repair and to prevent bacteria from entering. (Nall, R. 2014) (NHS Choices. 2014) Complications Sepsis can lead to serious complications and the damage can be irreversible. Complications for the women include: Septicaemia Septic shock Peritonitis Haemorrhaging Pyelonephritis Mastitis Pulmonary embolism Disseminated intravascular coagulation Abscesses Death Compromise fertility The foetus can be affected causing depressed Apgar scores, neonatal septicaemia, pneumonia and death. (Dharmaraj, D. Patriquin, G. 2012) Willacy (2012) wrote that severe sepsis can cause acute organ dysfunction and has a mortality rate of 20-40%. If septic shock develops the mortality rate rises to around 60%. Prevention Following aseptic techniques and principles is very important. Correct cleaning practice of hospital and home environments need to be followed and use of sterile packs and equipment must be used to prevent contamination; these must only be used once then deposed of. (Johnson, R. Taylor, W. 2011. p. 80). Physicians must exercise the correct hand hygiene techniques (appendixes A) and use antiseptic soap, washes, alcohol-based rubs and sterile gloves. By doing this it reduces the risk of introducing bacterium into a sterile environment. (Johnson, R. Taylor, W. 2011. pp. 73-77). Protective clothing: aprons, shoes covers must be worn to prevent spread of infection and contamination from one situation to another, these to be deposed of after one use. Use of non-touch technique is important by ensuring sterile equipment does not touch with anything unsterile to prevent contamination and potential for infection. The use of an assistant to open packs and equipment can reduced the risk of cros s contamination as it prevents touching anything non-sterile with sterile gloved hands. (Johnson, R. Taylor, W. 2011. pp. 80-82). Analysis of Statistics During the early 1900’s, just under 1.5% in 1000 births within the UK died from sepsis, greatly decreased on early years. Advances in medicine meant physicians were discovering asepsis was paramount in infection control. The introduction of carbolic spray in operating room, hand washing and rubber gloves were used to minimise contamination. Then in 1920, face masks were introduced into obstetrics to prevent contamination through body fluids. (Chamberlain, G. 2006). In the last hundred years there has been a significant drop in puerperal sepsis. In 2003-5 0.85% of maternal deaths per 100,000 births were a direct cause of sepsis, which means asepsis was tackling infection. However in 2006-8 there was a rise to 1.13%, through lack of knowledge, not seeking advice when unwell and through infection control. Sepsis is now the leading cause of maternal death within UK above hypertension, thromboembolic disease and haemorrhage, where there has been a reduction in these. It has been noted that over recent years that it has been hard to achieve a reduction in the number of deaths within the UK due to bacterial infections, more needs to be done in order to prevent maternal deaths and these statistics rising further. (Sriskandan, S. 2011). Conclusion Puerperal sepsis is now the leading cause of maternal death, which means more medical research need to be undertaken in order to reduce the number of cases. Sepsis through pelvic exams, trauma during labour or prolonged labour needs to be evaluated and assessed on how using aseptic techniques and principles can reduce the risk of cross contamination and introducing bacterium into the genital tracts. Over the last hundred years puerperal sepsis has declined significantly, however over recent years it has increased from lack of knowledge and infection control. The UK is a developed country and should have infection control and aseptic techniques and principles at the forefront of medical practice. Recommendations After miscarriages, during last trimester and during delivery broad-spectrum antibiotic should be given orally or intravenously to expectant mothers to provide the body with a barrier towards infections, this could reduce the number of cases sepsis. More training and awareness of sepsis and aseptic principles should be provided to physicians, to ensure understanding and they are being diligent in regards to infection control. Expectant mother and families should receive education through antenatal classes to learn the signs and symptoms of sepsis and what to do if they suspect it. Symptoms can be confused with flu like symptoms and education should be given to seek help and advice off midwives, health visitors and other physicians. References Awori, N. Bayley, A. Beasley, A. Boland, J. Crawford, M. Driessen, F. Foster, A. Graham, W. Hancock, B. Hancock, B. Hankins, G. Harrison, N. Kennedy, I. Kyambi, J. Nundy, S. Sheperd, J. Stewart, J. Warren, G. Wood, M. (1999) ‘Puerperal Sepsis,’ Primary Surgery, 1 [Online]. Available at: http://www.meb.uni-bonn.de/dtc/primsurg/docbook/html/x1831.html (Accessed: 20/04/2015). Baring, N. (2013) OBSTETRICS Puerperal Infection. Available at: http://www.slideshare.net/nianbaring/obstetrics-puerperal-infection (Accessed: 23/04/2015). Burch, D. (2009) When Childbirth Was Natural, and Deadly. Available at: http://www.livescience.com/3210-childbirth-natural-deadly.html (Accessed: 23/04/2015). Chamberlain, G. (2006) ‘British maternal mortality in the 19th and early 20th centuries’ Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 99(11). 559-563. [Online]. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1633559/ (Accessed: 20/04/2015). Dharmaraj, D. Patriquin, G. (2012) Puerperal Infection. Available at: http://www.sharinginhealth.ca/conditions_and_diseases/puerperal_infection.html (Accessed: 25/04/2015). Johnson, R. Taylor, W. (2011) Skills for Midwifery Practice. 3rd edn. London: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier. Knight, M. (2015) What is a life threatening complication in pregnancy and childbirth? Available at: http://ww.healthtalk.org/peoples-experiences/pregnancy-children/conditions-threaten-womens-lives-childbirth-pregnancy/what-life-threatening-complication-pregnancy-and-childbirth (Accessed: 12/04/2015). Nall, R. (2014) Puerperal Infection. Available at: http://www.healthline.com/health/puerperal-infection (Accessed: 23/04/2015). NHS Choices (2014) Sepsis – Diagnosis. Available at: http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Blood-poisoning/Pages/Diagnosis.aspx (Accessed: 25/04/2015). Sepsis Alliance (2015) Sepsis. Available at: http://www.sepsisalliance.org/sepsis/symptoms/ (Accessed: 24/04/2015). Sriskandan, S. (2011) ‘Severe peripartum sepsis’ Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 41 339–46. [Online]. Available at: www.rcpe.ac.uk/sites/default/files/sriskandan.pdf (Accessed: 26/04/2015) Willacy, H. (2012) Puerperal Pyrexia. Available at: http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/Puerperal-Pyrexia.htm (Accessed: 25/04/2015). World Health Organizations (2015) Clean Care is Safer Care. Available at: http://www.who.int/gpsc/clean_hands_protection/en/ (Accessed: 26/04/2015). Bibliography Awori, N. Bayley, A. Beasley, A. Boland, J. Crawford, M. Driessen, F. Foster, A. Graham, W. Hancock, B. Hancock, B. Hankins, G. Harrison, N. Kennedy, I. Kyambi, J. Nundy, S. Sheperd, J. Stewart, J. Warren, G. Wood, M. (1999) ‘Puerperal Sepsis,’ Primary Surgery, 1 [Online]. Available at: http://www.meb.uni-bonn.de/dtc/primsurg/docbook/html/x1831.html (Accessed: 20/04/2015). Baring, N. (2013) OBSTETRICS Puerperal Infection. Available at: http://www.slideshare.net/nianbaring/obstetrics-puerperal-infection (Accessed: 23/04/2015). Burch, D. (2009) When Childbirth Was Natural, and Deadly. Available at: http://www.livescience.com/3210-childbirth-natural-deadly.html (Accessed: 23/04/2015). Chamberlain, G. (2006) ‘British maternal mortality in the 19th and early 20th centuries’ Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 99(11). 559-563. [Online]. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1633559/ (Accessed: 20/04/2015). Colebrook, L. (1936) ‘The Prevention of Puerperal Sepsis.’ BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics Gynaecology, 43 691–714. [Online]. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2210245/?page=1 (Accessed: 26/04/2015). Dharmaraj, D. Patriquin, G. (2012) Puerperal Infection. Available at: http://www.sharinginhealth.ca/conditions_and_diseases/puerperal_infection.html (Accessed: 25/04/2015). Encyclopaedia Britannica (2015) Puerperal fever. Available at: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/482821/puerperal-fever (Accessed: 23/04/2015). Jessica Trust (2015) Childbed fever: the facts. Available at: http://www.jessicastrust.org.uk/childbed-fever/information-for-parents/ (Accessed: 24/04/2015) Johnson, R. Taylor, W. (2011) Skills for Midwifery Practice. 3rd edn. London: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier. Johnstone, W. (1938) ‘Prevention and Control of Puerperal Sepsis.’ British Medical Journal, 2(4049) 331-335. [Online]. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2210245/?page=1 (Accessed: 26/04/2015). Khaskheli, M. Baloch, S. Sheeba, A. (2013) ‘Risk factors and complications of puerperal sepsis at a tertiary healthcare centre.’ Pakistan Journal of Medical Science, 29(4) 972-976. [Online]. Available at: http://www.pjms.com.pk/index.php/pjms/article/view/3389 (Accessed: 26/04/2015). Knight, M. (2015) What is a life threatening complication in pregnancy and childbirth? Available at: http://ww.healthtalk.org/peoples-experiences/pregnancy-children/conditions-threaten-womens-lives-childbirth-pregnancy/what-life-threatening-complication-pregnancy-and-childbirth (Accessed: 12/04/2015). Macdonald, S. Magill-Cuerden, J. (2011) Mayes’ Midwifery. 14th edn. London: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier. MedicineNet.com (2012) Definition of Fever, puerperal. Available at: http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7921 (Accessed: 24/04/2015). Nall, R. (2014) Puerperal Infection. Available at: http://www.healthline.com/health/puerperal-infection (Accessed: 23/04/2015). NHS Choices. (2015) Peritonitis. Available at: http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Peritonitis/Pages/Introduction.aspx (Accessed: 23/04/2015). NHS Choices (2014) Sepsis – Diagnosis. Available at: http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Blood-poisoning/Pages/Diagnosis.aspx (Accessed: 25/04/2015). O’Connell, K. (2012) What is septicaemia? Available at: http://www.healthline.com/health/septicemia#Overview1 (Accessed: 23/04/2015). Royal College of Obstetricians Gynaecologists (2012) Sepsis following Pregnancy, Bacterial. Available at: https://www.rcog.org.uk/en/guidelines-research-services/guidelines/gtg64b/ (Accessed: 26/04/2015). Sepsis Alliance (2015) Sepsis. Available at: http://www.sepsisalliance.org/sepsis/symptoms/ (Accessed: 24/04/2015). Sriskandan, S. (2011) ‘Severe peripartum sepsis’ Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 41 339–46. [Online]. Available at: www.rcpe.ac.uk/sites/default/files/sriskandan.pdf (Accessed: 26/04/2015) Willacy, H. (2012) Puerperal Pyrexia. Available at: http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/Puerperal-Pyrexia.htm (Accessed: 25/04/2015). World Health Organizations (2015) Clean Care is Safer Care. Available at: http://www.who.int/gpsc/clean_hands_protection/en/ (Accessed: 26/04/2015). World Health Organizations (2015) Managing puerperal sepsis. Available at: http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/4_9241546662/en/ (Accessed: 20/04/2015). Glossary Apgar scores designed to quickly evaluate a newborns physical condition. Asepsis the absence of sepsis or infection. Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) is a serious disorder in which the proteins that control blood clotting becomeover active. Malaise is a feeling of general discomfort or uneasiness; normally first indication of infection of other disease. Mastitis is the inflammation of breast tissue. Peritonitis is the inflammation of the thin layer of tissue that lines the inside of the abdomen called the peritoneum. Placenta abruption part of the placenta comes away from the uterus wall), Placenta praevia – all or part of the placenta covers the cervix. Pulmonary embolism is a blockage in the artery that transports blood to the lungs. Pyelonephritis inflammation of the substance of the kidney as a result of bacterial infection. Septicemia is known as bacteremia or blood poisoning. Septicemia occurs when a bacterial infection enters the bloodstream. Appendixes Appendixes A – Hand washing techniques (WHO. 2015) 1 | Page Seamus Heaneys North Collection | Postcolonial analysis Seamus Heaneys North Collection | Postcolonial analysis Introduction The field of postcolonial theory is of increasing primacy within critical theory and literary theory. Postcolonial studies emphasise the re-emergence of cultural strengths and identities, personal, racial, national and the like. However, the term itself, and the existence of a field of critical theory and studies related to it, is still contested and debated. Situating a discussion or literary analysis within such a field could, therefore, be inherently problematic, although this author will attempt to justify why Heaney can be viewed as a post-colonial poet by dint of his work, not just the happenstance of his temporal and national placement. This essay will attempt to discuss and analyse the thematic and stylistic characteristics of Seamus Heaneys work, focusing on his North collection. The particular themes and dimensions of these poems are significant in relation to postcolonial theory because they so strongly related to aspects of his cultural and racial identity and heritage, as well as to his personal history and experience. Reference will be made within the essay to different critical views upon his work, and to the underlying and associated political dimensions of the context within which the works were produced. Discussion Ashcroft et al (1989: 2) state that the term post-colonial can be used to cover all the culture affected by the imperial process from the moment of colonization to the present day. It is a literature which emerges following the decline of the Empire (Cudden, 145). What each of these literatures have in common beyond their special and distinctive regional characteristics is that they emerged in their present form out of the experience of colonization and asserted themselves by foregrounding the tension with the imperial power, and by emphasizing their differences from the assumptions of the imperial centre. (Ashcroft et al, 2). Green and Lebihan (37) suggest that post colonial writing may be engaged in rewriting a particular version of history, or in challenging a forceful commonplace view of politics. Loomba (103) however, suggests that the issue is complicated because the use of the prefix post leads to the implication of a discrete era or discipline which is associated with an aftermath, one that is temporal, as in coming after, an ideological, as in supplanting. In the case of Heaney, one could view his writing as being a product of colonial heritage, because his style is so strongly related to traditional poetic forms, particularly lyric poetry, and because the evidence of that colonial heritage, in a post-colonial backlash, is all around him. The North collection was first published 1975, almost a year after the break down of the Sunningdale Agreement, which was followed by an IRA backlash? and a 15 day strike by loyalist workers which ended up in the disbanding of the Faulkner-led government. The years 1974 and 1975 have been described as some of the worst moments of the troubles, and it is no surprise, therefore, that Heaneys work should refer not only these occurrences, but to his ambiguous position in relation to them. The theme of violence is evident in the North poems in a variety of guises. those hacked and glinting/in the gravel of thawed streams /were ocean-deafened voices warning me, lifted again/in violence and epiphany. (from North in North, 1975) The consequences of violence death, decay and associated conditions, are also prevalent within these works. I can see her drowned body in the bog, the weighting stone, the floating rods and boughs. (from Punishment in North, 1975) This corpse is viewed by Heaney as a reflection of the Catholic women who, during the troubles in Northern Ireland, were publicly punished (tarred and chained to their houses) for dating and associating with British soliders. Violence as a cultural representation, violence as a theme, and the products and representations of violence, seem to dominate many of Heaneys works (Lunday, 111). The land and the violence associated with the people of the land seem to be inextricably linked. In terms of style, this extract shows while Heaney embraces simple, poetic beauty of language, it is this very beauty which starkly contrasts with his subject. The way in which Heany sets out to depict adultery and the tribal consequences of this shows a connection to both present and past. Yet this is no romanticised past, no idealised heritage to generate a strong sense of nationalism. I almost love you / but would have cast, I know, / the stones of silence. I am the artful voyeur / your brains exposed and darkened combs (from Punishment in North, 1975) Johnson (2005) suggests that this poem serves to articulate and present the tragedy of a people in a place, the Catholics of Northern Ireland. The responses of the speaker to the adultery are very much linked with the context, and with an awareness that, within this context, no act that could be construed as impacting upon or connecting with the politics of the time is without consequences. Therefore, Heaneys postcolonial nature is traversing his roots in Northern Irish rural life, which allow him to make use of myth and certain unique aspects of the Irish experience, whilst also commenting on the contemporary context and the political conflict that forms the backdrop to the publication of these works. . The theme of death and bodies relates to his heritage and history in real ways. It could be argued that one of the central motifs in this collection is the bog, wild lands which carry the history of millions of years. This setting allows for the exploration of the past, and is how Heaney connects his political and ideological present with his past. Thus it is important linguistically and emblematically. . The themes of Heaneys North collection of poems can be viewed in relation to his heritage as an Irishman, and as the son of a farming family, and as someone who has a strongly emotive connection with the land of his birth (Johnson, 2005). These poems are specifically connected to the landscapes and the history of his life and heritage. Spirituality and religion is smaller, less obvious theme of these poems, and there are significant connections between the religious conflicts with which he has been surrounded, and the language of the poems, particularly in the choice to differentiate between the sacred and the secular. and found only the secular/powers of the Atlantic thundering (from North in North, 1975). Heaney also associates religion with violence (see earlier theme) in violence and epiphany (from North in North, 1975). This is unsurprising, given the issue of the troubles and the context within which this writing has emerged. However, this is not a comfortable or easy asociation, for the reader in particular, because the connection between the images of violence used and what the writer (and reader) must know and understand about Irelands history (such as the civil war) and its contemporary political stuggles, can perhaps be said to manifest within this writing in Heaneys trademark lyrical yet uncompromising style. Historical violence may be a mirror for current violence, as in, for example The Tollund Man, where the man is not more than the obvious, a sacrifical offering to this rapacious earth mother (Johnson, 25): She tighened her torc on him/And opened her fen. He is also, as with Punishment, a symbol of more recent victims of violence, which surround him as concepts, and as images, perhaps images too disturbing for poetic expression. While The stockinged corpses/laid out in the farmyards are a reference to Catholics murdered by protestants during the civil war (Johnson, 2005), Heany used the Tollund Man as a symbol and representation of the history of these bodies. He is all of those, from past to present, murdered for an ideology, as are the other bog bodies Heaney addresses, in a number of his collections. Parker describes this mythologising of the present through the past as Heaney casting around, like his fellow Northern Irish poets, in searh of appropriate strategies for addre ssing the political crisis. (131). I first saw his twisted face In a photograph, A head and shoulder Out of the peat Bruised like a forceps babe But now he lies Perfected in my memory. (Heaney 1969 The Graubelle Man). Here, we see the stylistic nature of the work as beig paramount. The poets love of, or reverence for, language, is evident here, as he pursues what Johnson (27) describes as evocative similes, which serve a number of purposes. The past perfection alluded to here is poignant because of the imperfections of the present, as if past violence becomes less appalling and more symbolic than present violence. He is using language of the present to capture and describe something that is past and ancient, much as he does in his translation of Beowulf (McGuire, 80). This very much makes Heaneys work a product of his physical heritage (Parker, 19; Tuan 684), and he connects his feelings, history and the history of the politics and wars of past and present with the land upon which they have taken place (Evans, 54; Mitchell and Ryan, 8). Conclusion. The works of Seamus Heaney can be strongly argued to be post-colonial, because they are a clear product of a heritage which is profoundly marked and shaped by imperialism and colonialism. The history of his nation, and of his work, is to be found within the land, and within the words that he uses to evoke both. The stylistic features of Heaneys poems, especially the North collection, adhere to conventions of lyric poetrym and is amenable to traditional expectations about poetic form and launguage (Johnson 28). It is not surprising that thematically, and emblematically, violence, retribution, and religiosity, all find their way into these works. However, this author would also argue that these themes may be as much a product of the readers interpretation, based on a knowledge of the poet and his context and history, and this raises the question of whether the work of a poet can ever be divorced from what the reader knows about how and where the poetry is produced. The power of Heaneys words lie in his skill ful manipulation of language that adheres to familiar poetic forms but addresses powerful images and emblems. Overall, these works mimic the questions and concepts raised by the Irish troubles and show such issues played out linguistically, stylistically, and symbolically through petry that is at once stark and gentle, uncompromising and moderate.

The Governmental Display of the Confederate Flag Essay -- Expository E

The Governmental Display of the Confederate Flag The confederacy is dead. The Civil War is long over, and the United States has experienced much growth and development since its end, much of this due to the outcome of the war. A new, united America flourished throughout the late eighteen hundreds gaining a great deal of power through high levels of commerce and trade. There is no doubt that America is better off now because of the outcome of the War between the States. However, many of the symbols of the Civil War remain very active in the present world; they are very much alive and charged with meaning and power. Probably the best known among all of these symbols is the Confederate Battle Flag. The â€Å"rebel flag† has taken on many different meanings since its conception in the 1860’s. Unfortunately, today it is often associated with different hate groups and people who would wish it to be used as a symbol of oppression. Though we may be better off now as one united country, this freedom to rebel is what A merica was founded on over two hundred-fifty years ago. The men who fought for a better country in the Civil War were just as patriotic as the soldiers of the Revolutionary war. This is why it is so unfortunate to see their banner tarnished and defiled the way it often has been in the last several decades. However, it is also revered and glorified by many people and organizations. It’s spirit of sacrifice and nobility, and the patriotism demonstrated by the men who fought under it is often acknowledged and demonstrated through the public display of the Confederate Flag. The debate of which I write stems from the display, by certain state governments, of the Confederate Battle Flag both in its original form and i... ...rs, but also the generations of blacks who have suffered persecution. Persecution at the hands of people who wave the flag as a weapon of hatred; a sword that still cuts deeply today. These state governments recognize that these symbols are unwanted by a large portion of their population, or at least realize that bad publicity does them no good, and that it is necessary to change. I don’t see the Confederate Flag issue being resolved any time soon; as long as the different groups attach different meanings to the flag, they always have different opinions as to whether or not it should be displayed. Works Cited: Reed, John Shelton. â€Å"The Banner that won’t Stay Furled.† Southern Cultures. Spring 2002: 76. Darby, Joseph A. Darby Responds to Most Frequent Allegations Against Sanctions.† Editorial. The Post and Courier [Charleston, SC] 16 May 2001: A7. The Governmental Display of the Confederate Flag Essay -- Expository E The Governmental Display of the Confederate Flag The confederacy is dead. The Civil War is long over, and the United States has experienced much growth and development since its end, much of this due to the outcome of the war. A new, united America flourished throughout the late eighteen hundreds gaining a great deal of power through high levels of commerce and trade. There is no doubt that America is better off now because of the outcome of the War between the States. However, many of the symbols of the Civil War remain very active in the present world; they are very much alive and charged with meaning and power. Probably the best known among all of these symbols is the Confederate Battle Flag. The â€Å"rebel flag† has taken on many different meanings since its conception in the 1860’s. Unfortunately, today it is often associated with different hate groups and people who would wish it to be used as a symbol of oppression. Though we may be better off now as one united country, this freedom to rebel is what A merica was founded on over two hundred-fifty years ago. The men who fought for a better country in the Civil War were just as patriotic as the soldiers of the Revolutionary war. This is why it is so unfortunate to see their banner tarnished and defiled the way it often has been in the last several decades. However, it is also revered and glorified by many people and organizations. It’s spirit of sacrifice and nobility, and the patriotism demonstrated by the men who fought under it is often acknowledged and demonstrated through the public display of the Confederate Flag. The debate of which I write stems from the display, by certain state governments, of the Confederate Battle Flag both in its original form and i... ...rs, but also the generations of blacks who have suffered persecution. Persecution at the hands of people who wave the flag as a weapon of hatred; a sword that still cuts deeply today. These state governments recognize that these symbols are unwanted by a large portion of their population, or at least realize that bad publicity does them no good, and that it is necessary to change. I don’t see the Confederate Flag issue being resolved any time soon; as long as the different groups attach different meanings to the flag, they always have different opinions as to whether or not it should be displayed. Works Cited: Reed, John Shelton. â€Å"The Banner that won’t Stay Furled.† Southern Cultures. Spring 2002: 76. Darby, Joseph A. Darby Responds to Most Frequent Allegations Against Sanctions.† Editorial. The Post and Courier [Charleston, SC] 16 May 2001: A7.

Women Portrayed in Horror and Film Noir Films Essay -- Film Movie Noir

Women Portrayed in Horror and Film Noir Films Works Cited Not Included Horror films have always been more attractive to the male viewer than to the female viewer. Why is that? Usually horror films mainly present the audience with very graphic mutilation and the raping of females, more so than their male counterparts. Horror films have always depicted females as either objects or as the victim of a horrible act. In Linda William's essay 'When the Woman Looks,' she says that 'there is not that much difference between an object of desire and an object of horror as far as the male look is concerned' (Jancovich 63). That is just the way horror films are, and they will probably not change anytime, because the women in the films usually grab the attention of males. This is why horror films are usually more pointed at the male view. Some males like to see women depicted as the punisher because they like seeing evil women in these films precisely for their viewing pleasures, sexual and otherwise. An online essay defines horror as, 'its true subject matt er is that of the struggle for recognition of all that society represses? (Niver). Although horror films as well as film noir films are usually fictitious, the violence depicted among women is real and they show the dark side of the human experience especially in women. In some horror films, females are ?often asked to bear witness to [their] own powerlessness in the face of rape, mutilation and murder? (Jancovich 61). Women, who have been traumatized by violence in any way, have to live with their emotions and feelings regarding their situations everyday of their lives.... ...is very scary is that ?one-third of women report being physically or sexually abused by a boyfriend or husband at some time in their lives? (Boss 357-358). These statistics not only happen in real life, but are also depicted on the big screens. They have been for years because it brings people to the movies and they find it interesting to watch. The statistics that are mentioned here need to be changed before it is too late. People and today?s society need to be more cautious of their surroundings, know who they are getting involved with and to try and not make stupid mistakes. Society needs to take more responsibility for their actions and sexual attackers need to be put in prison for a long time. Horror films and film noir films, just like society, do depict a lot of violence among women and they also show the dark side of the human experience.

To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee Essay -- To Kill a Mockingbird Essa

To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee To Kill A Mockingbird has several themes included in this classic novel. The theme of a book is defined by the dominating ideas in a literary work. It is an abstract concept that is made solid through the author's use of action, images, and characters. The main theme in this work is the reality of prejudice. Class, sex, and race are some of the prejudices present in the town of Maycomb.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prejudice concerning one's class in society is dominant in the town of Maycomb. Class structure in this novel is important because it creates a caste system for the people to follow. In this system, the black population permeates at the bottom. Families with the Finch's stature would be found at or near the top. According to the caste system people had a position to uphold for example, if you were of a Finch's status you were to act respectably and not act like trash. The Ewells' in this story are just above the colored folks only because they are white. Most people look down upon them resulting in avoidance. This caste system exists because in Maycomb it is the way things have always been. Class structure promotes a sense of security for the people, and that's the way the people want it to stay.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since this story takes place in the 1930s there is also a prejudice towards women. Men believed that women were the weaker sex, and not equal to a man. A prime example of this is when the men believed they should protect their women from Tom Ro...

Behind the Myth of Sisyphus Essay

The philosophical essay of â€Å"The Myth of Sisyphus† by Albert Camus was written in France, in 1942. Obviously during a very historical time of war in which had a lot of people on the edge. The piece of work written was motivated by what Camus thought about the situation during the time; such as suicide, absurdity and happiness. The meaning of life was defined in many different ways, and with that being said Camus had seen so much that he had different values and searched for the truth about life and its purpose, plus what motivated a modest philosopher. Society took this essay as something very absurd and really didn’t know how to react to it but wonder how meaningful is life and what is to be valued and what shouldn’t be. People were on the edge just thinking about these kind of things. Especially during this time people didn’t know what to believe or what to have faith on as well because of the war. Which is why society looked at this as dark comedy and could’ve also been an eye-opener to others as well. Just something to keep their minds off the situation that was occurring. The World War II was happening at the moment and it was a historical disaster for many. When the Germans invaded France, Camus joined the French Resistance. He was in it for four long years and also wrote for a paper so he had to know a lot of information about the war. I am most certain that from the experience having gone through the war made him realize many things about the values of life. â€Å"It was during this period that Camus formalized his philosophy that human life was sacred, no matter how inexplicable existence of life might be.† (Bree). Seeing the death toll from the war any one can see how sacred life is. That is when he gradually started looking into life’s philosophy and he came up with the conclusion that life was absurd. â€Å"[m]isunderstood as a philosophy of hopelessness. Camus did hold  that life was absurd — defying logical explanation, and ultimately irrational. However, Camus considered life valuable and worth defending.† (Bree ). Basically, if you had an explanation and reason to what you were doing in life and if you considered it meaningful, then it was meaningful. Other than that, according to Camus’s philosophy it was absurd. While Camus was arranging and discovering new thoughts about philosophy, he happened to write â€Å"The Myth of Sisyphus†. It was a Greek myth about a man named Sisyphus who was punished to repeat a meaningless task of pushing a rock up a mountain and seeing it roll back down once it reached the top. Why push a rock if it is going to go down again. However, it can be meaningless but only if it was interpreted that way. This essay was written when he came to seek about the meaningless and the absurdity of life. When Camus came to the conclusion whether to find the meaning of life was suicide in a way it contradicted himself. â€Å"Without man the absurd cannot exist.† (Camus). Suicide is way to see how life is valuable but obviously impossible to tell and demonstrated it to others philosophically. â€Å"There is but one truly serious philosophical problem and that is suicide. Judging whether life is or is not worth living amounts to answering the fundamental question of philosophy.† (Camus). Therefore, suicide is just really an absurd thing to do and impossible to prove the point. That it when Camus came up with the idea that happiness and absurdity are similar. In â€Å"The Myth of Sisyphus†, Sisyphus goes through a struggle pushing the rock but once he reaches the top he is, I believe, happy for having accomplished it. He accomplished pushing it up after such a struggle. â€Å"The struggle itself towards the heights is enough to fill a man’s heart. One must imagine Sisyphus happy.† (Camus). Even though he was in a bad situation he saw the bright side of it. Either you were happy and realizing there are worst things than pushing a rock up a mountain, or sad because of the good things other people have that you didn’t. However, even though Sisyphus was happy for a moment, Camus thought it was absurd to be happy because Sisyphus knew his fate when he would reach the bottom of the mountain. Camus compared this to real life and it is the same awareness that an absurd man has in his life. The war strongly influenced Camus’s thoughts. â€Å"Historical revolt, rooted in metaphysical revolt, leads to revolutions seeking to eliminate absurdity by using murder as their central tool to take total control over the world.† (Knopf). Philosophically, in the war murdering was eliminating absurdity and thinking that it would get that answer whether life is meaningful or not. Today society believes life is meaningful, however, there are a few who don’t think so and therefore, they come down to committing suicide. That lead to Camus searching to see whether life is meaningful or not. When you discovery that life is meaningless, you can’t unrealized the truth about your life. You can’t go back and live life while ignoring yourself that there is no purpose. Which again leads to suicide, who wouldn’t want if knowing there is nothing for one in life at all. All you can have is hope for another day but even Camus argues that hope is not always a good thing it can also disappoint your expectations. I know it may seem confusing but as Camus believes that even the absurd can’t be understood at times. So even if life is meaningless it is precious! However, one cannot simply judge their own life and assume it is meaningless if you have not experienced everything. You cannot judge whether all you done was good or bad or if that was it in your life. Camus and Nietzsche are both similar in their own ways the only difference is that Nietzsche pursued for the truth about life and that life is meaningful. â€Å"Nietzsche’s point was that be wholly alive means being aware of the negative as of the positive, feeling pain, not shunning any experience, and embracing ‘even in its strangest and hardest problems’.† (Arson). Then that is when Camus seems quite confused because at first he declares that life is meaningless and when he reaches the end he is pretty much concluding â€Å"[t]hat life is to clearly by judged to be better than others†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Arson). Life is purely what we make of it and even Camus states at the very end of â€Å"The Myth of Sisyphus† that â€Å"One must imagine Sisyphus happy.† (Camus). That is why I conclude that Camus was absurd and essentially everyone was too. In all it was an absurd contradiction. The main theme shared thoughtout the course that can relate back and forth is truth and the good and evil. â€Å"Camus mirrors Nietzsche’s own morality when he interrogates God as a moral instance. Both authors seem to start from a  fairly humanistic viewpoint: God is the constructed being, a named abstraction and an uplifted instance to distribute what is morally right and morally wrong.† (Svenja) With that said how are we to judge ourselves to know what is wrong and right and from there on serve a purpose in life? If we judge ourselves to having done something evil we usually feel bad and sometimes do the absurd and commit suicide. But even committing suicide is bad because you will never find out if there was meaning behind the a person’s life. So you can’t even eliminate all the evil from the world.   And if so, you cannot judge a person by their actions but philosophically judged on their intentions. â€Å"[t]hese figures try to re-feel themselves but they can only do so when they accept their fate as their own and not made by society.† (Svenja) In order to actually live life you must accept life and what becomes of it, meaningless or not, life will always be precious! Correspondingly, Camus must face his truth. â€Å"Like Sisyphus, we are our fate, and our frustration is our very life: we can never escape it.† (Satre) As a society that’s why we all must accept the truth in life and that is our fate as well. No matter if it has value, you must continue living, committing suicide is not the answer and by doing so you will prove to others that there can be meaningless lives. You can’t escape it and you can’t be absurd in Camus’s philosophy either. Camus even detects a level of absurdity in Nietzsche’s philosophy as well. Truth is that Camus is absurd, maybe he is searching for meaning of life so much that it becomes irrational. Which in that case leads to him believing about suicide but knew he was never even going to find meaning that way at all. He would be never be able to tell how valuable life is. Therefore, Camus must be happy about life and its meaning so he can actually live life as it is. The only problem philosophers have is that they can never admit that absurdity in their thoughts, so they make a reason and figure out a way out of it. That’s the only way you can actually live life in happiness and still have fate even though you believe there is no meaning behind life. If you search for your meaning in life you will just dedicate all your time doing so, and never actually living life. One must value life day by day. However, in a way I do agree with Camus because if you have fate about the next day being better and then being disappointed about it, it is really saddening. So why have fate when you can just enjoy life as it goes and actually grab a value out of it. Just as  Sisyphus did, when he actually became happy even though his fate was struggling all over again. He valued that he was doing better than other people who were suffering at the same time. I believe that’s how people should be in life, you should always seek out the good in bad situations no matter what. It is the only way people can live in true happiness. Works Cited Arson, Ronald, â€Å"Albert Camus† The Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Spring 2012 Ed. Edward N. Zalta. ed. 2012. Print Brà ©e, Germaine; Camus, (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1959, 1961) Camus, Albert. Myth of Sisyphus. 1942. Print Knopf, A. Alfred. The Rebel: An Essay on Man In Revolt, New York. 1954. Print. Svenja, Schrahe. â€Å"Albert Camus and Friedrich Nietzsche† Albert Camus Society. 2011. Print.

Daughter of Kami: Shinto and Christian themes in ‘Nausica of the Valley of the Wind’

Religion has affected art for centuries, because human responses to art and religion involve similar processes: imagination and emotional involvement (Beit-Hallami, 1983). It seems natural for religion to continue its influence on popular culture, especially film, because of its wide reach. However, looking at Japan, is it possible for a â€Å"non-Japanese† religion like Christianity to exert influence its popular culture, and to what extent? To answer this question, we look at the 1984 animated film of Hayao Miyazaki, Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ of the Valley of the Wind (Kaze no Tani no Nausicaa). Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ is said to be the quintessential Miyazaki film (Osmond, 1998) and it earned 740 million yen, with almost a million viewers. It owes its popularity to the incorporation of universal themes like religion, the environment and industrialisation. It contains so many themes, both Japanese (feudalism, Shinto) and non-Japanese (Greek Mythology, Christianity, European medievalism). It is interesting to note that Miyazaki is often described as a humanist, following no particular religion, yet Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ contains an almost equal amount of references to Shinto and Christianity in the film. There are many English versions of the various terms and names of the characters in the film, partly because there is a more complex manga of the same name. For ease of reference to the film, I use names and terms as they appear in the English-dubbed version of Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ released in 2005, to convey the Shinto and Christian elements found in the film, looking at broad themes as well as symbols. Film synopsis The story in Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ takes place a thousand years after a global war, the â€Å"Seven Days of Fire.† Great Warriors, biological weapons with nuclear capabilities, destroyed everything. However, enclaves of surviving human colonies exist throughout the Fukai, or the Sea of Decay. ,The Fukai is a new ecosystem consisting of a vast toxic forest of giant fungi and giant insects with the Ohmu as guardians. The main protagonist is Princess Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½, daughter of the ruler of the Valley, a feudal community protected from toxic spores by strong sea winds. She is a nature-loving pacifist with a gift for communicating with insects and animals. Lord Yupa, a wandering mentor, inspires her to find a way to stop the spread of the Fukai. Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ often explores the Fukai to obtain plant samples and cultivate them in her secret room. One day, an airship carrying a Great Warrior embryo crashes into the Valley. This embryo was first unearthed by the Pejites, but it was stolen by the imperialistic Tolmekians. These two states intend to use the Great Warrior to destroy the Fukai and the insects. In the struggle for the Great Warrior, Tolmekia invades the Valley. The Fukai and the insects are assaulted in this struggle, and the Ohmu are baited to the Valley to destroy it. Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ sacrifices herself before the Ohmu, thereby calming their rage. They bring her back to life and heal her wounds, and then return to the Fukai, leaving life to return to normal in the Valley. Now we will look at two religions that are referred to extensively in the film: Shinto and Christianity. Shinto Traditional Japanese religiosity is a mixture of Shinto, Buddhism, Confucianism and folk religions. â€Å"Shinto†, meaning â€Å"the way of the kami†, refers to the ancient native Japanese religious practices and sentiments. Shinto has four general tenets: worshipping and honouring the kami; love of nature; tradition and the family; and cleanliness (Picken, 1994, as cited in Wright, 2004). Muraoka Tsunetsugu (1964) distinguishes philosophical and ethical distinctive characteristics of Shinto: 1) accepting life and death, good and evil, as inevitable parts of the world we live in, and 2) reverence for the â€Å"bright† and â€Å"pure†, in all matter and thought, endeavoring to overcome physical pollution with rites of exorcism and bad thoughts with a â€Å"pure and bright heart†. The close link between humans, kami and nature, and the significance of purification and rituals are two themes in Japanese religion that carry on even to Japanese contempor ary religions today (Earhart, 1982). For the scope of this essay, I will look at the Shinto themes of harmony with nature, reverence for nature and life, and instance of purification and rituals found in Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½. Wa, or harmony with nature is seen to be of utmost importance. One accepts the good and bad with nature, and tries to make peace with it. Miyazaki explains that Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ is based on a Phoenician princess in Homer's Odyssey and a Japanese heroine, a â€Å"princess who loved insects†1. Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ believes that humans and the Fukai can live together in peace. She embodies the â€Å"relational resonance with humanity and the natural world† suggested by Tucker (1999). At any rate, the surviving humans have to learn to live with the Fukai or risk destruction by insects. The telepathic Ohmu and other insects can be seen as kami, animistic spirits with powers. The Ohmu went â€Å"blind with rage† when Pejites speared a baby Ohmu in order to bait the Ohmu towards the Valley and destroy the Tolmekians. Disharmony with nature is seen to have damaging consequences. In Japan, nature is still venerated and exalted, even though the actual state of nature may be the opposite. Shinto is associated with reverence for nature and all forms of life. In the first few minutes of the film, Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ is shown flying on her aircraft into the Fukai. The toxic jungle is rendered beautifully, with glittering poisonous plants, translucent flying insects and serene music in the background. Here we see the unconditional beauty of nature, be it harmless or poisonous. In a following scene Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ comes across a shell of an Ohmu. It takes up almost the whole frame and Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ is miniscule in comparison. She pronounces the shell to be â€Å"perfect† and â€Å"amazing†. Embellished with vivid music, an image of a nature revered for its sacredness and perfection is projected. Reverence for nature also comes from seeing it as sacred, and from knowing its power. In the film, humans fear the lethal spores of the Fukai, and its constant spread. At the same time, as the viewer discovers later on, the Fukai actually has restorative powers. It is in fact cleansing the Earth of mankind's waste left behind from the Great War. Similarly, the Ohmu possess benevolent telepathic powers (although they can only communicate with Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½) as well as the power to destroy humans and civilisation. In another scene, Kushana, commander of the Tolmekian army, announces her plan to burn the Fukai. In response, the Valley people exclaim in hushed tones, â€Å"Burn the Toxic Jungle?†, â€Å"Is it possible?† showing that they consider the Fukai indestructible. These powers of the Fukai and the Ohmu cause humans to fear and respect nature at the same time. Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ reveres the life of both humans and insects. She implores countless times to the warring Pejites and Tolmekians, â€Å"Please, no more killing!† and â€Å"I can't bear to have anyone else die†. Instead of killing insects that attack humans, she uses an insect charm to calm them down and coax them back to the jungle. This was the case with an Ohmu who was chasing Lord Yupa, and a giant insect that caused the crash of a Tolmekian airship. When two Pejites captured a baby Ohmu to use as bait, Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ risked injury and her life to try and return the baby Ohmu back to its herd. Being part of nature, both humans and insects are seen as equally important and worthy of preservation. Hence, we can see the importance of harmony with nature, because of its sanctity, power, and its inclusion of all forms of life. Another main theme in Shinto is the importance of purity and the use of rituals to overcome a state of contamination. In Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½, the Earth has been polluted by mankind, the worst being the nuclear-like Great Warriors which ultimately resulted in the Earth's destruction. Nausicaa realises the toxic Fukai is actually purifying the world: wastes are absorbed by the trees, which turn into stone, crystallizing the poison into harmless sand. The Fukai symbolises a purifying ritual, comparable to how a â€Å"bright heart† would continuously purify itself by ridding itself of bad thoughts, or wastes. Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ is an example of a â€Å"pure and bright heart† (Tsunetsugu, 1964) who in her mission for peace, tries to purify the hearts of humans from their lust for war and bloodshed against each other and the Fukai. However, she does not have any clear â€Å"rituals† that she uses to achieve this purification except perhaps, her repeated self-sacrifice. In comparison, Kushana also has a purification ritual of her own. She wants to clear Earth of the Fukai by burning it and destroying it completely in order to build a â€Å"world of prosperity†. This idea of sacrifice brings us to the other religion alluded to repeatedly throughout the film: Christianity. Although Christianity is not native to Japan, and not very well-received throughout the years, its prophetic and theistic messages do have some universal value and some Japanese can relate to them as they are something different from the animistic elements of Shinto. Christianity In many ways, the appearance of strong elements of Christianity, a ‘foreign' religion, is not surprising. Miyazaki's work is strongly Western-influenced due to his education (Osmond, 1998). Christianity still has a relatively small following in Japan, because Shinto and Buddhist rituals are still a major part of Japanese life what it means to be ‘Japanese'. The Christian themes in Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ constitute one of many foreign elements that Miyazaki has appropriated into this film. Here we will look at three doctrines of Christianity: redemption, original sin, and resurrection. Throughout the film, Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ repeatedly saves people. When Lord Yupa, the samurai-like wanderer, returns to the Valley, he praises Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ by saying â€Å"Who else would rescue me when I'm in trouble?† In another scene, the barge carrying Valley hostages comes loose and is about to crash into the Fukai. Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ cries out to them â€Å"Everybody! I'll save you for certain!† These examples show the Messianic nature of Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½. To further cement her image as a prophet-like being, in another scene Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ is speeding back to the Valley after escaping from a Tolmekian ship and in desperation she implores â€Å"Please dear God, please hear this prayer! You must protect the people of the Valley!† Obaba, the wise old woman of the valley, realises this explicitly for the benefit of viewers. At the beginning of the film, Obaba, or Grandmother, recounts the ancient legend of the saviour clad in blue who will come to save mankind and â€Å"guide the people†¦at last to a land of purity†. At the end of the film, she realises that Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ is the saviour spoken of in the legend. The theme of redemption is clearly portrayed in the film. However, why does mankind need to be saved? The doctrine of redemption comes hand in hand with the doctrine of the original sin. In the concept of the original sin, mankind is born in a state of sinfulness and is doomed to hell unless he is ‘saved' by accepting Christian beliefs. Lord Yupa explains that he wanders to find out â€Å"if mankind is truly fated to be swallowed up by (the Fukai), or if there is still some hope†. Obaba teases him, claiming that he is in fact looking for the blue-clad Saviour. The film addresses mankind's inevitable doom and the search for a saviour. Symbols play an important part in portraying the doctrine of resurrection. Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ appears twice with her arms outstretched – reminiscent of Jesus being crucified on the cross – when trying to stop Asbel and the Pejites from shooting. Here we see that Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ adopted such a gesture as a symbol of righteous fearlessness (she was determined to stop the killing that she felt was wrong) and surrender (she put herself at the Pejites' mercy). In trying to save her people from an attack by the Ohmus, Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ is shot twice, burned by acid and finally dies facing the Ohmu stampede. The Ohmus, however, revived Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½. Her death and resurrection mirrors that of Jesus' after his death and burial. At the end of the film, a chiko plant grows in the pure sand in the Fukai, symbolising the resurrection of nature at last. We see that it is not only Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½, but also nature, that is brought back to life. Conclusion In this essay, we have seen that Christianity can indeed influence a Japanese anime, however, the Shinto elements in Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ are far more extensive. The Shinto themes mainly stress mankind's relationship with nature while the Christian themes focus on mankind's destiny. Apparently Miyazaki did not intend to have such religious overtones in Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½. However, in the spirit of symbolic interactionism, these religious themes nevertheless have meaning for those who ascribe meanings to them. Viewers (like me) interpret the images and scenes in the film and make sense of them in different frameworks, such as religion. Did Nausicaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ manage to truly unite mankind with nature? Perhaps through the medium of popular cultures, she serves as a â€Å"female Japanese prophet† to remind us to strive towards peace and harmony with nature and mankind.

Lipstick Jihad

In Lipstick Jihad: A Memoir of Growing Up Iranian in America and American in Iran, Azadeh Moaveni has written a memoir of growing up first as an American girl born of Iranian parents in Southern California, then as an adult working as a reporter for Time magazine while living in Tehran, Iran. Azadeh Moaveni tells of her jihad (struggle) to develop from a self-centered, spoil girl into an adult with recognition that there are billions of others in the world, each of whom has opinions and beliefs that are equally as important as her own. While living among the community of expatriated Iranians and going to public schools, Azadeh Moaveni sometimes felt she was living a schizophrenic life: at home she was an Iranian daughter of upper middle class Iranians who had escaped Iran just prior to the 1979 revolution that overthrew the Shah of Iran and installed a Moslem Republic in its place. At school and at the mall she felt like an outsider because she was darker skinned and had a name no one could pronounce. She was ashamed of her parents, ashamed of being an Iranian because so many people remembered the taking of the American hostages and harbored resentment against Iranians. Since she felt out of place in California, Azadeh Moaveni had built a fantasy of what her life Iran would be like; it would be perfect. What she fails to realize is that she was really just a typical teenager; no one feels they fit in while going through adolescence; everyone is ashamed of his or her parents and other family members. Although the book isn't formally divided into two sections, it is in fact divided in this manner. The first four chapters tell of her life growing up in Palo Alto and San Jose and her first few months working as a reporter. The second half of the book tells about her realization that the beliefs and opinions of others matters; she moves from an egocentric worldview to a more realistic, balanced view of the world and her place in it. The first chapter, â€Å"The Secret Garden,† Moaveni tells of her life in the United States living within the Diaspora community of Iranian expatriates. Her parents and others of that generation had been among the upper classes in Iran before the 1789 revolution. In Iran they had lived well, they had servants, and led a life separate from the vast majority of the people of Iran. In many ways they had absorbed the superior attitude of the British who lived and worked in Iran to exploit the considerable oil resources at the expense of the less privileged members of Iranian society. In the United States they lived in their own Iranian community within the California community at large. Naturally they held a positive, nostalgic belief that Iran of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s was the real Iran and they waited for the Shah or his son to return to power so they could go home. Azadeh Moaveni had visited Iran once as a child when she and her mother spent a summer with their relatives in her grandfather's walled compound in downtown Tehran. In this compound she felt absolutely free. She climbed the trees and ate the fruit of the trees. Due to this memory from her childhood and to the almost fanatical reverence of Iran that the adults around her believed Azadeh Moaveni developed a fantasy of life in Iran. When she was unhappy that fantasy was her escape from the difficulties of the day-to-day problems of being an adolescent. Consequently, when she finished college and was looking for a place to work, she chose to return to Tehran. Azadeh Moaveni called chapter two â€Å"Homecoming† because she anticipated that she would finally be where she should be, among her people, people that could pronounce her name, people who could understand her.   She was to be disappointed, â€Å". . . we had assumed here, in this country where people could pronounce our names, our world would expand. Instead we felt constricted† (Moaveni, 2005). Everywhere she went she found barriers from the officials, from the police, and from the volunteer, Basig, a group of young toughs who enforced the rules of public dress and behavior with force, if necessary. Azadeh Moaveni had an elitist attitude indicated by her opinion of the Basig. â€Å"The Basig were carefully selected in the poorest of neighborhoods and were cultivated to violence with a skillful balance of brainwashing and small incentives.† Certainly the violence practiced by the Basig was wrong, but Azadeh Moaveni's failure to realize the Basig may not have seen their role as making barriers, but of enforcing the Islamic law established by the current administration. The fact that she speaks of them being from the â€Å"poorest of neighborhoods† indicates an aristocratic slant to her view of those less fortunate than she was. Much of her struggle at this point was a failure to look at any issue from any vantage point other than her own. She was very much the California girl. Her priorities were shallow and self-serving. â€Å"Celine became my first new Iranian girlfriend, guiding me to the best manicurist, waxing lady, and private pastry chef in the city with the shared belief that these were urgent priorities.† (67).   Throughout the remainder of the first half of the book she exhibited similar attitudes and priorities. Even her attempts to practice the precepts of Islam were lacking depth. For Ramadan I had â€Å"resolved to fast, naively expecting to spend the month in harmony with the daily rhythm of the millions of Iranians around me† (Moaveni, 2005). When she realized others she knew did not do, she was disappointed and gave up her fasting. Her fantasy view of Iran had begun to crumble. In the second half of the book, Azadeh Moaveni began to grow. More oppressive violence began to be practiced by the clerical militants in Iran in an attempt to discourage people from voting at all. It was clear to everyone that the reformist President Khatami would win the election, however the more conservative clerics wanted to make sure he did not win with a large enough majority to be able to claim that he had a mandate from the people to make changes and lift restrictions that had been established by the Ayatollah Khomeini when the Islam Republic had been established in 1979. Khatami was reelected with 78% of the vote with 66% of the people voting (Moaveni, 2005). Many of Azadeh Moaveni's friends had boycotted the election because their vote would mean nothing in a repressive society. She began to realize that the political and educational elite she lived among had little in common with the people who lived in Iran. Their non-voting meant absolutely nothing. It was irrelevant to the majority of people of Iran. For the first time Azadeh Moaveni began to look beyond herself and her class and realize the Iran she carried in her head, was not Iran at all. What she and her friends thought meant nothing. â€Å"About six months after I came to Tehran, I put my labors of self-interrogation to rest, happy to nominally consider myself Iranian from America, but mostly happy just to live, and not consider myself so much† (Moaveni, 2005). When the attack on the United States occurred on September 11, 2001, Azadeh Moaveni was devastated. She couldn't understand why no one seemed to care. The three thousand plus dead was a small number compared to the millions killed in the struggles in Bosnia, the genocide in the Sudan and Somalia. Thousands of men died in the recent Iran-Iraq war. Both sides in this war were armed by the United States. Azadeh Moaveni began to understand the anti-American sentiment throughout the Middle East. When this book began, I was disappointed. Based on the word â€Å"Jihad† in the title and the fact that it had to do with Iran, I expected something more universal than a memoir of a young woman. I felt deceived as if she had composed her title to attract more buyers who saw the word â€Å"Jihad† and were interested in learning about the Middle East and not at all interested in another teenager comes of age book. Throughout the first half of the book I saw little reason to change my opinion. I became more and more disappointed. Frankly, I did not care about Azadeh Moaveni or anything she did or thought. She seemed to be little more than a typical upper middle class teenager who thought the center of the universe coincided with her particular location at any particular moment. She was self-centered, arrogant and egotistical. By the time I had read half of the book, I was suffering from a Jihad of my own and wondered how I would be able to stand Azadeh Moaveni for the rest of the book. However, in the second half this changed. Azadeh Moaveni became a woman, a real person who understood that there were other people besides herself and her circle of friends and relatives. She recognized there were millions of people in Iran, and in California for that matter, who lived and struggled and died. Each of them was just as much a person as her educated, young, elite friends, and her relatives who had been made wealthy under the Shah and had made their wealth at the expense of workers in Iran. By the time I finished reading the book I had come to appreciate it. It was a Jihad for Azadeh Moaveni, a struggle to grow from the girl with childlike fantasies about life into a woman with sensitivity and balanced worldview that was not populated by solely her friends and relatives. It is a book well worth reading, not only for those who like coming of age stories, but for those interested in learning about the Middle East and America's role in the development of its current political, religious and ideological structure. It can help the reader begin to understand the anti-American attitudes of other countries. Interestingly, the United States has in many ways behaved in the past the way Azadeh Moaveni did in the first half of the book: like a spoiled, self-centered child. Hopefully we will see the same growth that Azadeh Moaveni experienced begin in the United States and its interactions with other countries and peoples. References Moaveni, A. (2005). Lipstick Jihad: A Memoir of Growing Up Iranian in America and American in Iran. New York: Public Affairs, a member of Persius Books Group.